Abstract

In open-world environments, artificial agents must often contend with novel conditions that deviate from their training or design assumptions. This paper studies the robustness of fixed-strategy agents to such novelty within the setting of two-player zero-sum games. We present a general framework for characterizing the impact of environmental novelties, such as changes in payoff structure or action constraints, on agent performance in two distinct domains: Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma (IPD) and heads-up Texas Hold'em Poker. Novelty is operationalized as a perturbation of the game's rules or scoring mechanics, while agent behavior remains fixed. To measure the effects, we introduce two metrics: per-agent robustness, quantifying the relative performance shift of each strategy across novelties, and global impact, summarizing the population-wide disruption caused by a novelty. Our experiments, comprising 30 IPD agents across 20 payoff matrix novelties and 10 Poker agents across 5 rule-based novelties, reveal systematic patterns in robustness and highlight certain novelties that induce severe destabilization. The results offer insights into agent generalizability under perturbation and provide a quantitative basis for designing safer and more resilient autonomous systems in adversarial and dynamic environments.

Date

February 15, 2026

Authors

Mayank Kejriwal, Shilpa Thomas, Hongyu Li

Journal

arXiv preprint arXiv:2602.14278